The works, also known as the factory or mill, was where manual laborers used to work before the onset of automation and mechanization. In the early days of the Industrial Revolution, large factories employed hundreds or even thousands of workers who performed repetitive tasks by hand or with the aid of simple machinery. The conditions in these early works were often harsh and exploitative, as workers faced long hours, dangerous equipment, and low pay. However, the works were also centers of production that drove the growth of industry and cities. Understanding what the works used to be called provides insight into this important era in history.
Common Historical Names for Factories and Mills
Here are some of the most common historical names for works where manual laborers were employed:
The Mill
One of the most common early names was simply “the mill.” This comes from the fact that early factories were often centered around a water mill or steam engine that provided mechanical power. The mill buildings housed the machinery, while the workers tended to the machines or processes. For example, textile factories were often known as cotton mills or woolen mills.
The Factory
As manufacturing grew in scale, “factory” became a more common term. “Factory” connotes a system of mass production with a division of labor among many workers. Early factories focused on textiles, metals, and other industrial products. The term factory is still used today, even for highly automated plants.
The Works
“The works” was another broad term for an industrial plant, especially one with an on-site foundry, smelter, or blast furnace for metal production. Heavy machinery like steam engines and lathes might also be said to “work” in the works. The works commonly produced iron, steel, and other metals.
The Plant
Like “the works,” “plant” referred to an industrial facility as a whole. This could include the physical buildings, the machinery, the workforce, and the management structure. An early railroad locomotive plant, for example, would manufacture train engines and cars.
The Workshop
For smaller-scale factories with more specialized production, “workshop” was a common title. Workshops operated like artisan shops rather than massive factories. Items produced included textiles, furniture, leather goods, metalware, and more. Workshops were often housed in small standalone buildings.
The Manufactory
“Manufactory” was an early term used in the 1700s and 1800s to denote a site of manufacture. It refers specifically to the processing of raw materials into finished goods. Manufactories mass-produced items like textiles, tools, and ceramics ahead of the full factory system.
Working Conditions in Early Factories and Mills
While the works drove industrialization, they were often exploitative and hazardous workplaces in the early 19th century. Understanding the working conditions provides fuller context on this era.
Long Hours
A standard workshift in the early 1800s was 12-16 hours per day, 6 days per week. Workers had few breaks or days off. These extremely long hours were necessary to maximize productivity from expensive machinery. Fatigue and exhaustion were constant.
Low Wages
Despite backbreaking hours, workers were paid extremely low wages that kept them impoverished. Some families, including children, had to work just to survive. There were no labor laws to protect workers. Owners saw labor as a cheap commodity.
Dangerous Conditions
Safety was an afterthought in early industry. Workers frequently injured themselves on machinery with exposed moving parts. Fires, explosions, and building collapses also claimed lives. Ventilation was poor and fumes or airborne fibers often sickened workers.
Child Labor
It was common for children as young as 6 years old to be employed in mills and factories. Tiny fingers could polish small spaces in machinery or tie off broken threads in textiles. Orphans or children of the destitute were practically slaves.
Cramped, Unsanitary Housing
Workers often lived in tenements or dormitories owned by the factory. These were overcrowded fire hazards with no sanitation. Disease spread rapidly in these quarters, and the drinking water was foul.
Working and living conditions in the old works were bleak and abusive. Reform only came gradually over decades of labor activism and new legislation to protect workers. This history reminds us how far standards have come.
Major Industries Housed in Early Factories and Mills
While early works ranged across many trades, some major industries came to the forefront. These sectors drove rapid industrialization and economic growth.
Textiles
Weaving fabrics and spinning threads were among the earliest factory systems. Key textile mills included:
- Cotton mills – Spun cotton threads and wove them into fabrics, clothing, etc.
- Woolen mills – Processed wool fibers into yarn, fabric, and garments.
- Silk mills – Produced silk threads and cloth.
- Linen mills – Made fabric and items from flax fibers.
Power looms automated weaving. The flying shuttle increased speed. These inventions enabled mass production in textiles.
Metals
Early metal works focused on production of:
- Iron and steel – Smelting iron ore to make various grades of iron and steel.
- Armaments – Forging early artillery, firearms, swords, and ammunition.
- Machinery – Lathes, presses, boilers, engines, pumps, and more.
- Hardware – Nails, tools, cutlery, cookware, wire, and other goods.
The steam engine allowed powering of hammering, rolling, and grinding metal.
Pottery
Ceramic manufactories mass-produced:
- Bricks – Essential for construction and houses.
- Tiles – For flooring and architectural detail.
- Tableware – Plates, mugs, bowls, and other items.
- Sanitaryware – Early sinks, toilets, and plumbing.
The potter’s wheel and kiln firing were key technologies. Canals transported fragile wares.
Other Goods
Factories also arose dedicated to:
- Glassmaking – Window panes, bottles, optics.
- Paper production
- Furniture assembly
- Coachbuilding
- Printing and lithography
These covered a wide range of manufacturing activity that drove consumption.
The Shift to Modern Factories
The works established manufacturing but later gave way to more advanced factories with improved conditions.
Technological Advances
New technologies revolutionized production:
- Electrification enabled assembly lines and mass automation.
- Combustion engines provided portable power.
- Light bulbs allowed 24-hour production shifts.
- Electronic signaling coordinated complex systems.
These developments increased scale while reducing manual labor.
New Management Theories
Scientific management changed how factories operated:
- Stopwatch time studies optimized every task.
- Production planning departments used statistics to forecast.
- Human relations approaches motivated workers.
- Assembly line standardization increased efficiency.
These theories squeezed out every bit of productivity.
Improved Working Conditions
Thanks to progressive reforms, modern factories provided:
- Safer machines with guards and cutoffs.
- Ventilation systems to control fumes.
- Emergency exits and fire readiness.
- Sanitary facilities and clean water.
- Shorter, fixed shifts with breaks.
Labor laws also abolished child labor and set minimum wages and standards. This humanized the modern factory.
Conclusion
The old works and mills of the early Industrial Revolution reveal how far manufacturing has come. Dangerous, exploitative worksites relied on manual labor. But they also concentrated production in ways that drove economic growth. New technologies and management theories led to the rise of efficient modern factories. Crucially, reformers enacted laws to improve conditions for the wellbeing of workers. Understanding this history provides perspective on manufacturing progress.